450 Krenkel; Hor., Sat. ipsilles with 398L, s.v. The article is reprinted in McCutcheon Reference McCutcheon1999, a volume that offers in its introductory chapter a very good overview of the insider-outsider problem and that includes a selection of some of the most important scholarly contributions to the debate within the study of religion. Fest. On the Latin terminology for living sacrificial victims, see Prescendi Reference Prescendi2009. J. C.), Quand faire, c'est croire: les rites sacrificiels des romains, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Dogs and People in Social, Working, Economic or Symbolic Interaction, Proceedings of the 9, Annalisi dei resi faunistici dell'area sacra di S. Omobono, Il Viver quotidiano in Roma arcaica: materiali dagli scavi del tempio arcaico nell'area sacra di S. Omobono, Hiera Kala: Images of Animal Sacrifice in Archaic and Classical Greece, Materia Magica: The Archaeology of Magic in Roman Egypt, Cyprus, and Spain, Rome's Vestal Virgins: A Study of Rome's Vestal Priestesses in the Late Republic and Early Empire, http://apps.brepolis.net/BrepolisPortal/default.aspx. 16 280 BC and 290D; Rom. Birds: Suet., Calig. Test. The catinus is a piece of everyday ware used to serve food that contains a lot of liquid (L. 5.120). Roman sources make clear that Romans had several different rituals (sacrificium, polluctum, and magmentum) that appear, based on prominent structural similarities, to have been related to one another. 14 The statues made in Greece were made with perfect people in mind often modeled after gods and goddesses, while the statues in Rome have all the faults a real person would have. According to Pliny, Curius declared under oath that he had appropriated for himself no booty praeter guttum faginum, quo sacrificaret (N.H. 16.185). 1). I concede that, to a certain extent, the insider-outsider lens does not show us difficulties that were previously invisible. The insider-outsider problem has had little impact on the study of religion in pre-Christian Rome. Max. Or the chastity of women and the safety of the state, Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior, La vittima non un'ostia: Riflessioni storiche e linguistiche su un termine di uso corrente, Etruscan animal bones and their implications for sacrificial studies, Gste der Gtter Gtter als Gste: zur Konstrucktion des rmischen Opferbanketts, La Cuisine et l'autel: les sacrifices en questions dans les socits de la Mditerrane ancienne, Commentarii Fratrum Arvalium Qui Supersunt: les copies pigraphiques des protocoles annuels de la confrrie Arvale (21 av.304 ap. for young animals (including foetal and neonatal specimens),Footnote 95 ), the Romans followed instructions from the Sibylline Books to bury alive pairs of Gauls and Greeks, one man and one woman of each, in the Forum Boarium. 9 Arguably, then, it is the Christians who bequeathed to future generations the metonymic equivalence of sacrifice and violence, Knust and Vrhelyi Reference Knust and Vrhelyi2011: 17. The issue remains active in religious studies, as it does in cultural anthropology more widely. The most famous account is Livy's description of the Romans reaction to their losses at Cannae and Canusium to Hannibal in 216 b.c.e.,Footnote differences between It is understandable that, from the etic viewpoint, two rituals performed in roughly the same way should appear to be identical to each other, even if emic accounts distinguish between them. This has repercussions for our understanding of some elements of Roman religious thought. This meant that most famously those of Burkert, who identifies sacrificial slaughter as the basic experience of the sacred, and Girard, who begins his investigation into the origin of sacrifice by asserting its close kinship to murder and criminal violence.Footnote Resp. As in the Greek world, sacrifice was the central ritual of religion. Elsner has proposed that the choice, increasingly frequent in the third century c.e., to represent the whole sacrificial ritual with libation and incense-burning scenes rather than with images involving animals is an indication of the increased emphasis on vegetarian sacrifice in that period.Footnote Hammers appear in only fifteen scenes, two-thirds of which date between the first century b.c.e. 37 91 and the fact that the word immolatio itself derives from the Indo-European root *melh2 (to crush, to grind): immolatio is cognate with English mill.Footnote In Livy's account of the first devotio in 340 b.c.e. The Greek gods domain over law had been mostly limited to the hereditary kings of individual city-states, but Rome grew into a unified Republic. Greek gods had heavy emphasis placed on their 61 1. Our author makes clear that the sacrifice of two Gauls and two Greeks happened alongside another ritual: the punishment of an unchaste Vestal Virgin. Throughout his corpus Cicero uses a range of technical divinatory terms, including augur, ostentum, and portentum, in rather general ways, even in De Divinatione where one might reasonably expect him to be more precise. Modern scholars sometimes group all of these rites under the rubric sacrifice.Footnote The literary evidence for this is slender but persuasive. Home. 35 31; Plin., N.H. 36.39; Tac., Ann. The two texts are nearly identical and perhaps go back to the original lex sacra of the altar of Diana on the Aventine hill in Rome, to which the inscriptions explicitly appeal. 42 Greek and Roman Difference Between Greek Gods and Roman Gods More Greek words for sacrifice. WebGreeks Romans Lived in small rural communities Polis functioned as the city-states religious center Greek Gods Sense of identity Polis isolated from one another and independent Sanctuaries to share music, religion, poetry, and athletics Classical Greek Orders basic design elements for architecture (sense of order, predictability, and eadem paupertas etiam populo Romano imperium a primordio fundavit, proque eo in odiernum diis immortalibus simpulo et catino fictili sacrificat. Greek Zeus to the Roman Jupiter: The Complete Guide (2022) Thinking along the same lines, it is reasonable to conclude that there are relatively few images of slaughter among Roman sacrificial scenes in public artwork of the Classical period because the emphasis in state-sponsored sacrifice lay elsewhere. 69 Oliveira, Cludia Most houses are of wattle and daub construction, but the shrine rooms of the more wealthy are walled with stone. The prevalence of Roman images of sacrificial victims standing before the altar, that is, of the instant before mola salsa is sprinkled on them, is due to the importance of that moment. Comparative mythology - Wikipedia Marcos, Bruno 3 36 35 12 5401L. 15 Major differences between Roman and Greek Culture? - HistoryNet pecunia sacrificium makes clear that, despite its name, this ritual did not involve money. 19 31 537 Words 3 Pages Decent Essays Read More Furthermore, it seems reasonable to conclude that the miniature clay cows, birds, and other animals that are also commonly found in votive collections were also substitutes for live sacrificial victims.Footnote 78 6 Although the focus of this investigation is the recovery of some details of the Romans idea of sacrificium, I do not mean to imply that their concept is the right one and that the modern idea is wrong or completely inapplicable to the Roman context. The ancient Greek and Roman gods did not become incarnate the way Jesus was, did not enter the stream of real human history the way Jesus did, did not die as a Indeed these two rituals appear at first glance to be identical live interment in underground chambers, though admittedly in different locations within the city and with different victims. Instead they seem to have conceived of it as the ritual consecration of an animal which was afterwards killed and eaten. In addition to Zeus and Hera, there were many other major and minor gods in the Greek religion. How to say sacrifice in Greek - WordHippo 94. and Paul. One was killed at the Colline Gate, under the earth as is the custom and the other took her own life Since this horrible event which occurred in the midst of so many terrible things, as is wont to happen, was turned into a prodigy, the Board of Ten Men was ordered to consult the Books. The main god and goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. 29 1419). 1034 seems to draw an equivalence between sacrificare and mactare (cf. The exact nature of the connection between the two rituals is not clear, but I agree with Eckstein Reference Eckstein1982 that we should not see the sacrifice of Gauls and Greeks as some sort of atonement for the unchastity of the Vestals. Thus far, we have identified two points on which emic and etic ideas of what constitutes a Roman sacrifice do not align: when the critical transition from profane to sacred occurs and what kinds of things can be presented to the gods through the act of sacrificium. 76. This is suggested by Ov., F. 1.1278. Further support for the idea that the act of sprinkling mola salsa was either the single, critical moment or an especially important moment in a process that transferred the animal to the divine realm, is that mola salsa seems to be the only major element of sacrifice that is not documented explicitly by a Roman source as appearing in any other ritual or in any other area of daily life: processions, libations, prayers, slaughter, and dining all occurred in non-sacrificial contexts.Footnote Roman The more powerful individuals in the society have several shrines in their houses and, in fact, the opulence of a house is often referred to in terms of the number of such ritual centers it possesses. The Ancient Greek Underworld In what follows, I aim to clear away a few of the accretions that have arisen from more than a century of modern theorizing about the nature and meaning of sacrifice as a universal human phenomenon in order to gain a better understanding of those actions that the Romans identify by the Latin words sacrificium and sacrificare.Footnote pecunia sacrificium; Paul. "useRatesEcommerce": false 34 In Latin, one does not sacrifice with a knife or with an axe. 12 4 . sacrifice, Roman in OCD 44 WebFor example, the Peloponnesian War was primarily a struggle between two Greek city-states, Athens and Sparta, and was fought mainly on land and sea within the Greek world. See, however, C. Ando's concluding essay in Faraone and Naiden Reference Faraone and Naiden2012 along with A. Hollman's review of that same volume in BMCR 2013.04.44 and, in the same vein but with reference to ancient Egypt, Frankfurter Reference Frankfurter2011. subsilles. I presume that Miner's observations apply also to bathroom habits elsewhere in North America and Europe. 96 Var., L 5.122. 16 This is the insider-outsider problem in nuce. Finally, while other rituals seem to have fallen into desuetude, or at least to have fallen out of the literature, by the late Republic or early Empire, sacrificium remained a vital part of Roman religious life for centuries. But in reality, the relative silence of our sources about a ritual form that seems to have been available to the poor is not unique. Hemina fr. Elsner Reference Elsner2012 emphasizes the heavy influence of early Christian writers on modern theorizations of sacrifice. 25 Of this class of rituals, sacrificium does seem to have been somehow different from the others. 87 As is implied in all the relevant entries in the OLD. 81 Aeacus holds the keys to Hades. Modern etymologists disagree on the origin of the term. For example, scholars have used the relationships between different myths to trace the development of religions and cultures, to propose common origins for In the sacred realm, Romans could also pollucere a tithe to the god Hercules.Footnote Greek governments varied from kings and oligarchs to the totalitarian, racist, warrior culture of Sparta and the direct democracy of Athens, whereas Roman kings gave Now, the Romans did not eat people, so how does their performance of human sacrifice reinforce the link between sacrifice and dining? There is some limited zooarchaeological evidence for the consumption of dogs at some Roman sites, such as the inclusion of dog bones bearing marks of butchery among bone deposits that comprise primarily bovine and ovine remains, but it is not widespread. Sacrifices of wine and incense are common in the Commentarii Fratrum Arvalium, e.g. Plin., N.H. 31.89 is usually taken to refer to sacrifice (so Prescendi Reference Prescendi2007: 105) but the text mentions only sacra, not sacrificia. There is growing consensus that the answer is affirmative. 88. Footnote I follow Elsner Reference Elsner2012: 121 in setting aside the plethora of images of the tauroctony of Mithras and the taurobolium of Cybele and Attis. 69a). Upon examination of the Roman evidence, however, it becomes evident that this distinction is an etic one: while we see at least two different rituals, the Romans are clear that they sacrifice a wide range of food substances beyond animal flesh. It is also clear from literary sources that on a handful of occasions, including instances well within the historical period, the Roman state sacrificed human victims to the gods, a topic we shall address more fully later on. The Romans then observed a regular set of expiatory rituals, most importantly offerings made to the goddesses Ceres and Proserpina by matrons of the city and the procession of a chorus of twenty-seven virgins. Cato's instruction to pollucere to Jupiter an assaria pecunia refers to produce valued at one as (Agr. For a more extended analysis of the distinction between the punishment of unchaste Vestals and, on the one hand, sacrifice and, on the other, secular capital punishment, see Schultz Reference Schultz2012. Two famous examples are found on the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (Ryberg Reference Ryberg1955: fig. 101. The most common images of blood sacrifice in Roman art are procession scenes of animals being led to the altar or standing before it, waiting for mola salsa to be applied to them.Footnote 132.12). Nor, in broader terms, do I think that internal, or emic, categories should automatically be privileged over external, or etic, ones.Footnote 3.763829. 344L and 345L, s.v. WebThe standard view of paganism (traditional city-based polytheistic Graeco-Roman religion) in the Roman empire has long been one of decline beginning in the second and first centuries BC. Curius Dentatus, famous for his victory over Pyrrhus in 275 b.c.e. 423L s.v. While the attention of our Roman sources is drawn most frequently to blood sacrifice, there is good reason to think that, if there was indeed a climax to the ritual,Footnote Comparative mythology has served a variety of academic purposes. Another major difference between Greek gods and Roman gods is in the physical appearance of the deities. 3.95: Quid Agamemnon, cum devovisset Dianae quod in suo regno pulcherrimum natum esset illo anno, immolavit Iphigeniam, qua nihil erat eo quidem anno natum pulchrius? Because the context is Greek, it is safe to assume that Cicero is using, as he often does elsewhere when addressing a general audience, technical terms in a very general way. ex. 33 Paul. B. Rives provided valuable consultation on specific points and V. C. Moses generously shared her work-in-progress on the osteoarchaeological evidence from S. Omobono. 89 Gel. He does not use the language of sacrifice, that is, he does not call the ritual a sacrificium nor does he identify the Vestal as a victim.Footnote The biggest difference that I'm aware of is that the Classical Greek religion was much more the religion of myths that we all know, while the Class 45 ex Fest. Published by The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. Paul. 83 Finally, both ancient societies have twelve main gods and goddesses. 66 D. 6.9 (which probably draws on Varro) and possibly Paul. 77L, s.v. milk,Footnote 65 The same two interment rituals would be performed alongside one another again just about a century later, in 113 b.c.e. Cic., Red. 55 The Romans performed at least four forms of ritual killing, only one of which was sacrifice. Cornell, T. J. 40 hasContentIssue true, Copyright The Author(s) 2016. Were these items sprinkled with mola salsa?Footnote The most famous instance occurred annually at the festival of the Robigalia in June when a red dog and a sheep were sacrificed by the Flamen Quirinalis to ward off rust from the crops.Footnote Dear Mr. Chang, Aside from the obvious differences in language (one culture speaks as much Latin as the Vatican, while the other is all Greek to me), the Romans art largely imitated that of the Greeks. there is a relative dearth of published studies that deal in any serious way with the collections of bones found on various sites from Roman Italy.Footnote Also unfamiliar to the Romans would be another use of sacrifice now current in the life sciences, as a term for euthanasia of research animals with no real religious significance The plea of an editorial in the Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science from 1967 (p. 241) that researchers abandon the term because there is no deity involved in the act of euthanizing laboratory animals, fell on deaf ears: sacrifice remains common in animal management literature. Polluctum is a rite of wider scope than sacrificium, however, in that it could be performed on money and goods that do not appear to have been linked to eating in any way. Knives would have been used only in conjunction with one or other of these implements. We can push this second issue, what kinds of items can be the object of sacrifice, even further: Roman sacrifice, especially among the poor, was not limited to edible offerings. In overlooking the differences between the Roman idea of sacrificium and the modern idea of sacrifice, we lose some of the details of how the Romans perceived a core element of their own experience of the divine. While vegetal and meat offerings were on a par, inedible gifts could be sacrificed only as substitutes for edible offerings when money was a concern. MacBain Reference MacBain1982: 12735; Schultz Reference Schultz2010: 52930; Reference Schultz2012: 12930. Van Straten Reference Van Straten1995: 188. 74 25 At 8.10.1112, Livy notes that a commander could devote one of his soldiers rather than himself. 97 Difference Between Romans and Greeks Roman Sacrifice, Inside and Out* | The Journal of Roman Studies Although the remains come from a known sacred area, it should not be assumed that all of them are evidence of sacrificium or other rituals: some may be garbage, material used as fill, or even the remains of animals (like mice) that died while exploring the refuse heap. 36 73 uncovered in votive deposits throughout Italy. On the contrary, Greek religion did not prefer to execute rituals as much as The only inedible items that we know from literary sources were objects of sacrificium are all miniature versions of regular, everyday serveware: a cruet, a plate, and a ladle. For the possible link between this instance and the revelation of an unchaste Vestal, see Schultz Reference Schultz2012: 126 n. 18. mactus; de Vaan Reference De Vaan2008: 357 s.v. 87 WebRoman sacrificial practices were not functionally different from Greek, although the Roman rite was distinguishable from the Greek and Etruscan. The Similarities And Differences Of Greek And Roman Religions Meanwhile, from the Sibylline Books some unusual sacrifices were ordered, among which was one where a Gallic man and woman and a Greek man and woman were sent down alive into an underground room walled with rock, a place that had already been tainted before by human victims hardly a Roman rite. Pliny reports a ritual, possibly sacrifice (res divina fit, 29.58), involving a dog in honour of the little-known goddess, Genita Mana (cf. 7 58 Tereso, Joo Pedro 72 If we allow only items explicitly identified as sacrificia in Roman sources, our list includes beans,Footnote 53 Let me be clear. Greeks call the queen Hera, whereas Romans queen of gods is Juno. Differences There is also a queen of gods in Greek and Roman mythologies. mactus; Walde and Hofmann Reference Walde and Hofmann1954: 2.4 s.v. 92 Despite the fact that the Romans buried broken or superfluous gifts to the gods in deposits for hundreds of years, there are to my knowledge only two references to the practice in all of Latin literature.Footnote Far less common in the S. Omobono collection, but still present in significant amounts, is a range of animals that do not seem to have formed a regular part of the Roman diet, such as deer, a beaver, lizards, a tortoise, and several puppies.Footnote Scheid Reference Scheid2005: 1002; Reference Scheid2012: 84. As Scheid has reconstructed Roman public sacrifice,Footnote Foundational is the collection of essays on Greek sacrifice in Detienne and Vernant Reference Detienne, Vernant and Wissing1989. 10 Sacrifice was just one of several rites (alongside polluctum and magmentum) that the Romans had available to them that look to us, standing outside their religious system, as if they were all identical or nearly so. Here's a list of translations. At N.H. 29.578, Pliny tells us that a dog was crucified annually at a particular location in Rome, and that puppies used to be considered to be such pure eating that they were used in place of victims (hostiarum vice) to appease the divine; puppy was still on the menu at banquets for the gods in Pliny's own day. molo; de Vaan Reference De Vaan2008: 3867 s.v. 2.10.34, quoting a letter of Varro, and Paul. rutilae canes; Var., L. 6.16. 286L and 287L, s.v. magmentum; Serv., A. 14 Columella 2.21.4 might also refer to dog sacrifice, but the verb (feceris) leaves it ambiguous as to which ritual was being performed. 93L, s.v. Dogs, and puppies in particular, were thought to have some medicinal and magical properties: Pliny reports that some people thought the ashes of a dog's cranium, when consumed with a beverage, could cure abdominal pain (N.H. 30.53) and, when mixed with honey wine in particular, could cure jaundice (N.H. 30.93). The relationship between magmentum and augmentum (Paul. Ioppolo Reference Ioppolo1972; Tagliacozzo Reference Tagliacozzo1989. 6.343 and 11.108. Difference Between Romans and Greeks 8.10.)). By placing this variety of rites that the Romans had under the single rubric of sacrifice, we have lost sight of some of the complexity and nuance of Roman ritual life. ex Fest. molo. ex Fest. 11213L, s.v. Ov., F. 4.90142 with Fest. Although it is sixty years old, the lesson still works well. Aldrete Reference Aldrete2014: 32. The distinction between sacrificare and mactare was lost by Late Antiquity, but it was still active in the Republic and early Empire.Footnote
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